Greco-Roman world History of geography

the ancient greeks saw poet homer founder of geography. works iliad , odyssey works of literature, both contain great deal of geographical information. homer describes circular world ringed single massive ocean. works show greeks 8th century bc had considerable knowledge of geography of eastern mediterranean. poems contain large number of place names , descriptions, many of these uncertain real location, if any, being referred to.

thales of miletus 1 of first known philosophers known have wondered shape of world. proposed world based on water, , things grew out of it. laid down many of astronomical , mathematical rules allow geography studied scientifically. successor anaximander first person known have attempted create scale map of known world , have introduced gnomon ancient greece.

reconstruction of map of hecataeus of miletus.

hecataeus of miletus initiated different form of geography, avoiding mathematical calculations of thales , anaximander learnt world gathering previous works , speaking sailors came through busy port of miletus. these accounts wrote detailed prose account of known of world. similar work, , 1 survives today, herodotus histories. while work of history, book contains wealth of geographic descriptions covering of known world. egypt, scythia, persia, , asia minor described, including mention of india. description of africa whole contentious, herodotus describing land surrounded sea. though, historically indian sea thought of inland sea round of southern part of africa surrounded eastern part of asia connecting land, inference after circumnavigation of africa vasco da gama abandoned western cartographers of 15th century. some, though, hold descriptions of areas such india imaginary. regardless, herodotus made important observations geography. first have noted process large rivers, such nile, build deltas, , first recorded observing winds tend blow colder regions warmer ones.

pythagoras perhaps first propose spherical world, arguing sphere perfect form. idea embraced plato , aristotle presented empirical evidence verify this. noted earth s shadow during eclipse curved, , stars increase in height 1 moves north. eudoxus of cnidus used idea of sphere explain how sun created differing climatic zones based on latitude. led greeks believe in division of world 5 regions. @ each of poles uncharitably cold region. while extrapolating heat of sahara deduced area around equator unbearably hot. between these extreme regions both northern , southern hemispheres had temperate belt suitable human habitation.

hellenistic period

these theories clashed evidence of explorers, however, hanno navigator had traveled far south sierra leone, , possible other phoenicians had circumnavigated africa. in 4th century bc greek explorer pytheas traveled through northeast europe, , circled british isles. found region considerably more habitable theory expected, discoveries largely dismissed contemporaries because of this. conquerors carried out exploration, example, caesar s invasions of britain , germany, expeditions/invasions sent augustus arabia felix , ethiopia (res gestae 26), , perhaps greatest ancient greek explorer of all, alexander great, deliberately set out learn more east through military expeditions , took large number of geographers , writers army recorded observations moved east.

the ancient greeks divided world 3 continents, europe, asia, , libya (africa). hellespont formed border between europe , asia. border between asia , libya considered nile river, geographers, such herodotus objected this. herodotus argued there no difference between people on east , west sides of nile, , red sea better border. relatively narrow habitable band considered run atlantic ocean in west unknown sea somewhere east of india in east. southern portion of africa unknown, northern portion of europe , asia, believed circled sea. these areas considered uninhabitable.

the size of earth important question ancient greeks. eratosthenes attempted calculate circumference measuring angle of sun @ 2 different locations. while numbers problematic, of errors cancelled out , got quite accurate figure. since distance atlantic india known, raised important question of in vast region east of asia , west of europe. crates of mallus proposed there in fact 4 inhabitable land masses, 2 in each hemisphere. in rome large globe created depicting world. of figures eratosthenes had used in calculation considerably in error became known, , posidonius set out more accurate measurement. number considerably smaller real one, became accepted eastern part of asia not huge distance europe.

roman period

a 15th-century depiction of ptolemy world map, reconstituted ptolemy s geographia (c. 150)

while works of earlier geographers have been lost, many of them partially known through quotations found in strabo (64/63 bc – ca. ad 24). strabo s seventeen volume work of geography extant, , 1 of important sources of information on classical geography. strabo accepted narrow band of habitation theory, , rejected accounts of hanno , pytheas fables. none of strabo s maps survive, detailed descriptions give clear picture of status of geographical knowledge of time. pliny elder s (ad 23 – 79) natural history has sections on geography. century after strabo ptolemy (ad 90 – 168) launched similar undertaking. time roman empire had expanded through of europe, , unknown areas such british isles had been explored. silk road in operation, , first time knowledge of far east began known. ptolemy s geographia opens theoretical discussion nature , techniques of geographical inquiry, , moves detailed descriptions of known world. ptolemy lists huge number of cities, tribes, , sites , places them in world. uncertain ptolemy s names correspond in modern world, , vast amount of scholarship has gone trying link ptolemaic descriptions known locations.

it romans made far more extensive practical use of geography , maps. roman transportation system, consisting of 55,000 miles of roads, not have been designed without use of geographical systems of measurement , triangulation. cursus publicus, department of roman government devoted transportation, employed full-time grommatici (surveyors). surveyors’ job gather topographical information , determine straightest possible route road might built. instruments , principles used included sun dials determining direction, theodolites measuring horizontal angles, , triangulation without creation of straight stretches, long 35 miles, have been impossible. during greco-roman era, performed geographical work divided 4 categories:

land surveyors determined exact dimensions of particular area such field, dividing land plots distribution, or laying out streets in town.
cartographical surveyors made maps, involving finding latitudes, longitudes , elevations.
military surveyors called upon determine such information width of river army need cross.
engineering surveyors investigated terrain in order prepare way roads, canals, aqueducts, tunnels , mines.

around ad 400 scroll map called peutinger table made of known world, featuring roman road network. besides roman empire @ time spanned britain middle east , africa, map includes india, sri lanka , china. cities demarcated using hundreds of symbols. measures 1.12 ft high , 22.15 ft long.

the tools , principles of geography used romans closely followed little practical improvement next 700 years.