Protestant Reformation Christianity in the 16th century

1 protestant reformation

1.1 martin luther , lutheranism

1.1.1 widening breach
1.1.2 political maneuvering
1.1.3 results of lutheran reformation


1.2 calvinism

1.2.1 ulrich zwingli
1.2.2 john calvin


1.3 arminianism
1.4 anglicanism , english reformation
1.5 monasticism
1.6 scandinavia
1.7 scotland
1.8 france
1.9 netherlands
1.10 hungary

protestant reformation

the renaissance yielded scholars ability read scriptures in original languages, , in part stimulated protestant reformation. martin luther, doctor in bible @ university of wittenberg, began teach salvation gift of god s grace, attainable through faith in jesus, in humility paid sin. along doctrine of justification, reformation promoted higher view of bible. martin luther said, true rule this: god s word shall establish articles of faith, , no 1 else, not angel can so. these 2 ideas in turn promoted concept of priesthood of believers. other important reformers john calvin, huldrych zwingli, philipp melanchthon, martin bucer , anabaptists.

these reformers distinguished previous ones in considered root of corruptions doctrinal (rather matter of moral weakness or lack of ecclesiastical discipline), , aimed change contemporary doctrines accord perceived true gospel. word protestant derived latin protestatio meaning declaration refers letter of protestation lutheran princes against decision of diet of speyer in 1529, reaffirmed edict of diet of worms against reformation. since time, term has been used in many different senses, general term refers western christianity not subject papal authority. term protestant not used reformation era leaders; instead, called evangelical , emphasising return true gospel (greek: euangelion).

the beginning of protestant reformation identified martin luther , posting of 95 theses on castle church in wittenberg, germany. protest against corruptions such simony, episcopal vacancies, , sale of indulgences. 3 important traditions emerge directly protestant reformation lutheran, reformed (calvinist, presbyterian, etc.), , anglican traditions, though latter group identifies both reformed , catholic , , subgroups reject classification protestant.

the protestant reformation may divided 2 distinct simultaneous movements, magisterial reformation , radical reformation. magisterial reformation involved alliance of theological teachers (latin: magistri) such luther, zwingli, calvin, , cranmer, secular magistrates cooperated in reformation of christendom. radical reformers, besides forming communities outside state sanction, employed more extreme doctrinal change, such rejection of tenets of councils of nicaea , chalcedon. division between magisterial , radical reformers or more violent general catholic , protestant hostilities.

the protestant reformation spread entirely within confines of northern europe did not take hold in northern areas such ireland , parts of germany. catholic response protestant reformation known counter-reformation resulted in reassertion of traditional doctrines , emergence of new religious orders aimed @ both moral reform , new missionary activity. counter-reformation reconverted approximately 33% of northern europe catholicism , initiated missions in south , central america, africa, asia, , china , japan. protestant expansion outside of europe occurred on smaller scale through colonization of north america , areas of africa.

life of martin luther , heroes of reformation


martin luther , lutheranism

luther s 95 theses

the protests against rome began in earnest in 1517 when martin luther, augustinian monk, called reopening of debate on sale of indulgences. luther s dissent marked sudden outbreak of new , irresistible force of discontent had been pushed underground not resolved. quick spread of discontent occurred large degree because of printing press , resulting swift movement of both ideas , documents, including 95 theses. information disseminated in manuscript form, cheap prints , woodcuts amongst poorer sections of society.

parallel events in germany movement began in switzerland under leadership of ulrich zwingli. these 2 movements agreed on issues, unresolved differences kept them separate. followers of zwingli believed reformation conservative , moved independently toward more radical positions, of survive among modern day anabaptists. other protestant movements grew along lines of mysticism or humanism, breaking rome or protestants, or forming outside of churches.

after first stage of reformation, following excommunication of luther , condemnation of reformation pope, work , writings of john calvin influential in establishing loose consensus among various groups in switzerland, scotland, hungary, germany , elsewhere.

martin luther, lucas cranach elder

as luther began developing own theology, increasingly came conflict thomistic scholars, notably cardinal cajetan. soon, luther had begun develop theology of justification, or process 1 made right (righteous) in eyes of god. in catholic theology, 1 made righteous progressive infusion of grace accepted through faith , cooperated through works. luther s doctrine of justification differed catholic theology in justification rather meant declaring of 1 righteous , god imputes merits of christ upon 1 remains without inherent merit. in process, works more of unessential byproduct contribute nothing 1 s own state of righteousness. conflict between luther , leading theologians led gradual rejection of authority of church hierarchy. in 1520, condemned heresy papal bull exsurge domine, burned @ wittenberg along books of canon law.

luther s refusal retract writings in confrontation holy roman emperor charles v @ diet of worms in 1521 resulted in excommunication pope leo x , declaration outlaw. translation of bible language of people made scriptures more accessible, causing tremendous impact on church , on german culture. fostered development of standard version of german language, added several principles art of translation, , influenced translation of king james bible. hymns inspired development of congregational singing within christianity. marriage katharina von bora set model practice of clerical marriage within protestantism.

luther s insights held have been major foundation of protestant movement. relationship between lutheranism , protestant tradition is, however, ambiguous: lutherans consider lutheranism outside protestant tradition, while see part of tradition.

the sale of indulgences shown in question mintmaker, woodcut jörg breu elder of augsburg, circa 1530.



door of schlosskirche (castle church) in wittenberg luther said have nailed 95 theses, sparking reformation.


widening breach

luther s writings circulated widely, reaching france, england, , italy 1519, , students thronged wittenberg hear him speak. published short commentary on galatians , work on psalms. @ same time, received deputations italy , utraquists of bohemia; ulrich von hutten , franz von sickingen offered place luther under protection.

this portion of luther s career 1 of creative , productive. 3 of best known works published in 1520: christian nobility of german nation, on babylonian captivity of church, , on freedom of christian.

finally on 30 may 1519, when pope demanded explanation, luther wrote summary , explanation of theses pope. while pope may have conceded of points, did not challenge authority summoned luther rome answer these. @ point frederick wise, saxon elector, intervened. did not want 1 of subjects sent rome judged catholic clergy prevailed on charles v, holy roman emperor arrange compromise.

an arrangement effected, however, whereby summons cancelled, , luther went augsburg in october 1518 meet papal legate, cardinal thomas cajetan. argument long, nothing resolved.

first edition of exsurge domine.


political maneuvering

what had started strictly theological , academic debate had turned of social , political conflict well, pitting luther, german allies , northern european supporters against charles v, france, italian pope, territories , other allies. conflict erupt religious war after luther s death, fueled political climate of holy roman empire , strong personalities on both sides.

in 1526, @ first diet of speyer, decided until general council meet , settle theological issues raised martin luther, edict of worms not enforced, , each prince decide if lutheran teachings , worship allowed in territories. in 1529, @ second diet of speyer, decision previous diet of speyer reversed — despite strong protests of lutheran princes, free cities , zwinglian territories. these states became known protestants. @ first, term protestant used politically states resisted edict of worms. on time, however, term came used religious movements opposed roman catholic tradition in 16th century.

lutheranism become known separate movement after 1530 diet of augsburg, convened charles v try stop growing protestant movement. @ diet, philipp melanchthon presented written summary of lutheran beliefs called augsburg confession. several of german princes (and later, kings , princes of other countries) signed document define lutheran territories. these princes allied create schmalkaldic league in 1531, led schmalkald war in 1547 pitted lutheran princes of schmalkaldic league against catholic forces of charles v.

after conclusion of schmalkald war, charles v attempted impose catholic religious doctrine on territories had defeated. however, lutheran movement far defeated. in 1577, next generation of lutheran theologians gathered work of previous generation define doctrine of persisting lutheran church. document known formula of concord. in 1580, published augsburg confession, apology of augsburg confession, large , small catechisms of martin luther, smalcald articles , treatise on power , primacy of pope. distributed in volume entitled book of concord.

results of lutheran reformation

luther , followers began large exodus roman catholic church known protestant reformation. large numbers of europeans left roman church, including majority of german speakers (the german speaking areas population remained in catholic church under domain or influence of catholic austria , bavaria or electoral archbishops of mainz, cologne, , trier). because luther sparked mass movement, known father of protestant reformation, , father of protestantism in general.

calvinism

calvinism system of christian theology , approach christian life , thought within protestant tradition articulated john calvin , subsequently successors, associates, followers , admirers of calvin , interpretation of scripture, , perspective on christian life , theology. calvin s system of theology , christian life forms basis of reformed tradition, term equivalent calvinism.

the reformed tradition advanced stalwarts such martin bucer, heinrich bullinger , peter martyr vermigli, , influenced english reformers such thomas cranmer , john jewel. however, because of calvin s great influence , role in confessional , ecclesiastical debates throughout 17th century, reformed movement became known calvinism. today, term refers doctrines , practices of reformed churches, of calvin leader, , system perhaps best known doctrines of predestination , election.

the reformation foundations engaged augustinianism. both luther , calvin thought along lines linked theological teachings of augustine of hippo. augustinianism of reformers struggled against pelagianism, heresy perceived in catholic church of day. in course of religious upheaval, german peasants war of 1524–1525 swept through bavarian, thuringian , swabian principalities, leaving scores of catholics slaughtered @ hands of protestant bands, including black company of florian geier, knight giebelstadt joined peasants in general outrage against catholic hierarchy.

ulrich zwingli

ulrich zwingli, wearing scholar s cap.

ulrich zwingli swiss scholar , parish priest likewise influential in beginnings of protestant reformation. zwingli claimed theology owed nothing luther , had developed in 1516, before luther s famous protest, though doctrine of justification remarkably similar of luther. in 1518, zwingli given post @ wealthy collegiate church of grossmünster in zürich, remained until death. had risen prominence in city. zwingli began preaching version of reform, points aforementioned doctrine of justification, others (with luther vehemently disagreed) such position veneration of icons idolatry , violation of first commandment, , denial of real presence in eucharist. city council had accepted zwingli s doctrines, , zürich became focal point of more radical reforming movements. followers of zwingli pushed message , reforms far further had intended, such rejecting infant baptism. split between luther , zwingli formed essence of protestant division between lutheran , reformed theology. meanwhile, political tensions increased; zwingli , zürich leadership imposed economic blockade on inner catholic states of switzerland, led battle in zwingli, in full armor, slain along troops.

john calvin

john calvin french cleric , doctor of law. belonged second generation of reformation, publishing theological tome, institutes of christian religion, in 1536 (later revised) , establishing himself leader of reformed church in geneva, became unofficial capital of reformed christianity in second half of 16th century. exerted remarkable amount of authority in city , on city council, such has (rather ignominiously) been called protestant pope. calvin established eldership consistory, pastors , elders established matters of religious discipline genevan population. calvin s theology best known doctrine of (double) predestination, held god had, eternity, providentially foreordained saved (the elect) , likewise damned (the reprobate). predestination not dominant idea in calvin s works, seemingly become many of reformed successors.

following excommunication of luther , condemnation of reformation pope, work , writings of calvin influential in establishing loose consensus among various groups in switzerland, scotland, hungary, germany , elsewhere. geneva became unofficial capital of protestant movement, led frenchman, jean calvin, until death when calvin s ally, zwingli, assumed spiritual leadership of group.

arminianism

arminianism school of soteriological thought in protestant christian theology founded dutch theologian jacobus arminius. acceptance stretches through of mainstream protestantism. because of influence of john wesley, arminianism perhaps prominent in methodist movement.

arminianism holds following tenets:

humans naturally unable make effort towards salvation
salvation possible grace alone
works of human effort cannot cause or contribute salvation
god s election conditional on faith in jesus
jesus atonement potentially people
god allows grace resisted unwilling believe
salvation can lost, continued salvation conditional upon continued faith

arminianism accurately used define affirm original beliefs of jacobus arminius, term can understood umbrella larger grouping of ideas including of hugo grotius, john wesley, clark pinnock, , others. there 2 primary perspectives on how system applied in detail: classical arminianism, sees arminius figurehead, , wesleyan arminianism, (as name suggests) sees john wesley figurehead. wesleyan arminianism synonymous methodism.

within broad scope of church history, arminianism closely related calvinism, , 2 systems share both history , many doctrines. nonetheless, viewed archrivals within evangelicalism because of disagreement on doctrines of predestination , salvation.

anglicanism , english reformation

statue of richard hooker, emphases on reason, tolerance , inclusiveness influenced anglicanism.

anglican doctrine emerged interweaving of 2 main strands of christian doctrine during english reformation in 16th , 17th centuries. first strand catholic doctrine taught established church in england in 16th century. second strand range of protestant reformed teachings brought england neighbouring countries in same period, notably calvinism , lutheranism.

the church of england national branch of catholic church. formal doctrines had been documented in canon law on centuries, , church of england still follows unbroken tradition of canon law. english reformation did not dispense previous doctrines. church not retained core catholic beliefs common reformed doctrine in general, such trinity, virgin birth of jesus, nature of jesus human , god, resurrection of jesus, original sin, , excommunication (as affirmed thirty-nine articles), retained catholic teachings rejected true protestants, such 3 orders of ministry , apostolic succession of bishops.

unlike other reform movements, english reformation began royal influence. henry viii considered himself thoroughly catholic king, , in 1521 defended papacy against luther in book commissioned entitled, defence of 7 sacraments, pope leo x awarded him title fidei defensor (defender of faith). however, king came conflict papacy when wished annul marriage catherine of aragon, needed papal sanction. catherine, among many other noble relations, aunt of emperor charles v, papacy s significant secular supporter. ensuing dispute led break rome. in 1534, act of supremacy made henry supreme head of church of england. between 1535 , 1540, under thomas cromwell, policy known dissolution of monasteries put effect.

there notable opponents henrician reformation, such thomas more , bishop john fisher, executed opposition. there growing party of reformers imbued zwinglian , calvinistic doctrines. when henry died succeeded protestant son edward vi, who, through empowered councillors (with king being 9 years old @ succession , not yet sixteen @ death) duke of somerset , duke of northumberland, ordered destruction of images in churches, , closing of chantries. under edward vi reform of church of england established unequivocally in doctrinal terms. yet, @ popular level, religion in england still in state of flux. following brief roman catholic restoration during reign of mary 1553–1558, loose consensus developed during reign of elizabeth i, though point 1 of considerable debate among historians. yet so-called elizabethan religious settlement origins of anglicanism traditionally ascribed.

the political separation of church of england rome, beginning in 1529 , completed in 1536, brought england alongside broad reformed movement. however, religious changes in english national church proceeded more conservatively elsewhere in europe. reformers in church of england alternated centuries between sympathies catholic traditions , protestantism, progressively forging stable compromise between adherence ancient tradition , protestantism, called via media.

elizabeth i, queen of england , ireland.


monasticism

during reformation teachings of martin luther led end of monasteries, few protestants followed monastic lives. loccum abbey , amelungsborn abbey have longest traditions lutheran monasteries. since 19th century there have been renewal in monastic life among protestants.

monastic life in england came abrupt end dissolution of monasteries during reign of king henry viii. property , lands of monasteries confiscated , either retained king or given loyal protestant nobility. monks , nuns forced either flee continent or abandon vocations. around 300 years, there no monastic communities within of anglican churches.

scandinavia

all of scandinavia adopted lutheranism on course of 16th century, monarchs of denmark (who ruled norway , iceland) , sweden (who ruled finland) converted faith.

in sweden reformation spearheaded gustav vasa, elected king in 1523. friction pope on interference in swedish ecclesiastical affairs led discontinuance of official connection between sweden , papacy 1523. 4 years later, @ diet of västerås, king succeeded in forcing diet accept dominion on national church. king given possession of church property, church appointments required royal approval, clergy subject civil law, , pure word of god preached in churches , taught in schools—effectively granting official sanction lutheran ideas.

under reign of frederick (1523–33), denmark remained officially catholic. though frederick pledged persecute lutherans, adopted policy of protecting lutheran preachers , reformers, of whom famous hans tausen. during reign, lutheranism made significant inroads among danish population. frederick s son, christian, openly lutheran, prevented election throne upon father s death. however, following victory in civil war followed, in 1537 became christian iii , began reformation of official state church.

scotland

the scottish reformation culminated ecclesiastically in re-establishment of church along reformed lines, , politically in triumph of english influence on of france. john knox regarded leader of scottish reformation

the reformation parliament of 1560, repudiated pope s authority, forbade celebration of mass , approved protestant confession of faith. made possible revolution against french hegemony under regime of regent mary of guise, had governed scotland in name of absent daughter mary, queen of scots (then queen of france). scottish reformation decisively shaped church of scotland and, through it, other presbyterian churches worldwide.

a spiritual revival broke out among catholics after martin luther s actions, , led scottish covenanters movement, precursor scottish presbyterianism. movement spread, , influenced formation of puritanism among anglican church in england. scottish covenanters persecuted roman catholic church. persecution catholics drove of protestant covenanter leadership out of scotland , france , switzerland.

france

protestantism spread france, protestants nicknamed huguenots , , touched off decades of warfare in france, after initial support henry of navarre lost night of placards affair. many french huguenots however, still contributed protestant movement, including many emigrated english colonies.

saint bartholomew s day massacre, painting françois dubois (born 1529, amiens, picardy)

though not interested in religious reform, francis maintained attitude of tolerance, arising interest in humanist movement. changed in 1534 affair of placards. in act, protestants denounced mass in placards appeared across france, reaching royal apartments. issue of religious faith having been thrown arena of politics, francis prompted view movement threat kingdom s stability. led first major phase of anti-protestant persecution in france, in chambre ardente ( burning chamber ) established within parlement of paris handle rise in prosecutions heresy. several thousand french protestants fled country during time, notably john calvin, settled in geneva.

calvin continued take interest in religious affairs of native land and, base in geneva, beyond reach of french king, regularly trained pastors lead congregations in france. despite heavy persecution henry ii, reformed church of france, largely calvinist in direction, made steady progress across large sections of nation, in urban bourgeoisie , parts of aristocracy, appealing people alienated obduracy , complacency of catholic establishment.

french protestantism, though appeal increased under persecution, came acquire distinctly political character, made more obvious noble conversions of 1550s. had effect of creating preconditions series of destructive , intermittent conflicts, known wars of religion. civil wars helped along sudden death of henry ii in 1559, saw beginning of prolonged period of weakness french crown. atrocity , outrage became defining characteristic of time, illustrated @ intense in st. bartholomew s day massacre of august 1572, when catholic church annihilated between 30,000 , 100,000 huguenots across france. wars concluded when henry iv, former huguenot, issued edict of nantes, promising official toleration of protestant minority under highly restricted conditions. catholicism remained official state religion, , fortunes of french protestants gradually declined on next century, culminating in louis xiv s edict of fontainebleau—which revoked edict of nantes , made catholicism sole legal religion of france. in response edict of fontainebleau, frederick william of brandenburg declared edict of potsdam, giving free passage french huguenot refugees , tax-free status them 10 years.

netherlands


iconoclasm: organised destruction of catholic images, or beeldenstorm, swept through netherlands churches in 1566.

the reformation in netherlands, unlike in many other countries, not initiated rulers of seventeen provinces instead multiple popular movements, in turn bolstered arrival of protestant refugees other parts of continent. while anabaptist movement enjoyed popularity in region in decades of reformation, calvinism, in form of dutch reformed church, became dominant protestant faith in country 1560s onward.

harsh persecution of protestants spanish government of philip ii contributed desire independence in provinces, led eighty years war , eventually, separation of largely protestant dutch republic catholic-dominated southern netherlands, present-day belgium.

hungary

much of population of kingdom of hungary adopted protestantism during 16th century. spread of protestantism in country aided large ethnic german minority, understand , translate writings of martin luther. while lutheranism gained foothold among german-speaking population, calvinism became accepted among ethnic hungarians.

in more independent northwest rulers , priests, protected habsburg monarchy had taken field fight turks, defended old catholic faith. dragged protestants prison , stake wherever could.

protestants formed majority of hungary s population @ close of 16th century, counter-reformation efforts in 17th century reconverted majority of kingdom catholicism. significant protestant minority remained, of adhering calvinist faith.