Western philosophy Utilitarianism

the importance of happiness end humans has long been recognized. forms of hedonism put forward aristippus , epicurus; aristotle argued eudaimonia highest human , augustine wrote men agree in desiring last end, happiness. happiness explored in depth aquinas. different varieties of consequentialism existed in ancient , medieval world, state consequentialism of mohism or political philosophy of niccolò machiavelli. mohist consequentialism advocated communitarian moral goods including political stability, population growth, , wealth, did not support utilitarian notion of maximizing individual happiness. machiavelli exponent of consequentialism. believed actions of state, cruel or ruthless may be, must contribute towards common of society. utilitarianism distinct ethical position emerged in eighteenth century.

although utilitarianism thought start jeremy bentham, there earlier writers presented theories strikingly similar. in enquiry concerning principles of morals, david hume writes:

in determinations of morality, circumstance of public utility ever principally in view; , wherever disputes arise, either in philosophy or common life, concerning bounds of duty, question cannot, means, decided greater certainty, ascertaining, on side, true interests of mankind. if false opinion, embraced appearances, has been found prevail; farther experience , sounder reasoning have given juster notions of human affairs, retract our first sentiment, , adjust anew boundaries of moral , evil.

hume studied works of, , corresponded with, francis hutcheson, , first introduced key utilitarian phrase. in inquiry original of our ideas of beauty , virtue (1725), hutcheson says when choosing moral action, virtue in proportion number of people particular action brings happiness to. in same way, moral evil, or vice, proportionate number of people made suffer. best action 1 procures greatest happiness of greatest numbers—and worst 1 causes misery.

in first 3 editions of book, hutcheson included various mathematical algorithms ...to compute morality of actions. in this, pre-figured hedonic calculus of bentham.

some claim john gay developed first systematic theory of utilitarian ethics. in concerning fundamental principle of virtue or morality (1731), gay argues that:

happiness, private happiness, proper or ultimate end of our actions… each particular action may said have proper , peculiar end…(but)…. still tend or ought tend farther; evident hence, viz. man may ask , expect reason why either of them pursued: ask reason of action or pursuit, enquire end of it: expect reason, i.e. end, assigned ultimate end, absurd. ask why pursue happiness, admit of no other answer explanation of terms.

this pursuit of happiness given theological basis:

now evident nature of god, viz. being infinitely happy in himself eternity, , goodness manifested in works, have no other design in creating mankind happiness; , therefore wills happiness; therefore means of happiness: therefore behaviour, far may means of happiness of mankind, should such…thus of god immediate criterion of virtue, , happiness of mankind criterion of wilt of god; , therefore happiness of mankind may said criterion of virtue, once removed…(and)… whatever lies in power towards promoting happiness of mankind.

modern utilitarianism thomas rawson birks 1874

gay s theological utilitarianism developed , popularized william paley. has been claimed paley not original thinker , philosophical part of treatise on ethics assemblage of ideas developed others , presented learned students rather debated colleagues. nevertheless, book principles of moral , political philosophy (1785) required text @ cambridge , smith says paley s writings once known in american colleges readers , spellers of william mcguffey , noah webster in elementary schools. although largely missing philosophical canon, schneewind writes utilitarianism first became known in england through work of william paley. forgotten significance of paley can judged title of thomas rawson birks s 1874 work modern utilitarianism or systems of paley, bentham , mill examined , compared.

apart restating happiness end grounded in nature of god, paley discusses place of rules. writes:

...actions estimated tendency. whatever expedient, right. utility of moral rule alone, constitutes obligation of it.

but there seems plain objection, viz. many actions useful, no man in senses allow right. there occasions, in hand of assassin useful… true answer this; these actions, after all, not useful, , reason, , alone, not right.

to see point perfectly, must observed bad consequences of actions twofold, particular , general. particular bad consequence of action, mischief single action directly , occasions. general bad consequence is, violation of necessary or useful general rule…

you cannot permit 1 action , forbid another, without showing difference between them. consequently, same sort of actions must permitted or forbidden. where, therefore, general permission of them pernicious, becomes necessary lay down , support rule forbids them.