16th.7E18th centuries in the West History of geography

geography science experiences excitement , exerts influence during scientific revolution , religion reformation. in victorian period, oversea exploration gave institutional identity , geography science of imperialism par excellence. imperialism crucial concept europeans, institution become involved in geographical exploration , colonial project. authority questioned, , utility gained importance. in era of enlightenment, geography generated knowledge , made intellectually , practically possible university discipline. natural theology required geography investigate world grand machine divine. scientific voyages , travels constructed geopolitical power geographical knowledge, partly sponsored royal society. john pinkerton appraised eighteenth century had gigantic progress of every science, , in particular of geographical information , alteration has taken place in states , boundaries.

the discourse of geographical history gave way many new thoughts , theories, hegemony of european male academia led exclusion of non-western theories, observations , knowledges. 1 such example interaction between humans , nature, marxist thought critiquing nature commodity within capitalism, european thought seeing nature either romanticised or objective concept differing human society, , native american discourse, saw nature , humans within 1 category. implied hierarchy of knowledge perpetuated throughout these institutions has been challenged, royal geographical society enabling women join members in 20th century.

after english civil war, samuel hartlib , baconian community promoted scientific application, showed popularity of utility. william petty, administrators should skilled in best rules of judicial astrology calculate events of diseases , prognosticate weather. institutionally, gresham college propagated scientific advancement larger audience tradesmen, , later institute grew royal society. william cuningham illustrated utilitarian function of cosmography military implement of maps. john dee used mathematics study location—his primary interest in geography , encouraged exploiting resource findings collected during voyages. religion reformation stimulated geographical exploration , investigation. philipp melanchthon shifted geographical knowledge production pages of scripture experience in world. bartholomäus keckermannseparated geography theology because general workings of providence required empirical investigation. follower, bernhardus varenius made geography science in 17th century , published geographia generalis, used in newton s teaching of geography @ cambridge.

science develops along empiricism. empiricism gains central place while reflection on grew. practitioners of magic , astrology first embraced , expanded geographical knowledge. reformation theology focused more on providence creation previously. realistic experience, instead of translated scripture, emerged scientific procedure. geographical knowledge , method play roles in economic education , administrative application, part of puritan social program. foreign travels provided content geographic research , formed theories, such environmentalism. visual representation, map-making or cartography, showed practical, theoretical, , artistic value.

the concepts of space , place attract attention in geography. why things there , not elsewhere important topic in geography, debates on space , place. such insights date in 16th , 17th centuries, identified m. curry natural space , absolute space , relational space (on space , spatial practice). after descartes s principles of philosophy, locke , leibniz considered space relative, has long-term influence on modern view of space. descartes, grassendi , newton, place portion of absolution space , neural , given. however, according john locke, our idea of place nothing else, such relative position of thing (in essay concerning human understanding). distance pivot modification of space, because space considered barely in length between 2 beings, without considering thing else between them . also, place made men, common use, might able design particular position of things . in fifth paper in reply clarke, leibniz stated: men fancy places, traces, , space, though these things consist in truth of relations , not @ in absolute reality . space, order of coexistence , can ideal thing, containing order, wherein mind conceives application of relation . leibniz moved further term distance discussed interval , situation , not measurable character. leibniz bridged place , space quality , quantity, saying quantity or magnitude in things can known through simultaneous compresence--or simultaneous perception... quality, on other hand, can known in things when observed singly, without requiring compresence. in modern space relative, place , in place integrated. supremacy of space observed e. casey when place resolved position , point leibniz s rationalism , locke s empiricism.

during enlightenment, advancements in science mean widening human knowledge , enable further exploiting nature, along industrialization , empire expansion in europe. david hume, real father of positivist philosophy according leszek kolakowski, implied doctrine of facts , emphasizing importance of scientific observations. fact related sensationalism object cannot isolated sense-perceptions , opinion of berkeley. galileo, descartes, later hobbes , newton advocated scientific materialism, viewing universe—the entire world , human mind—as machine. mechanist world view found in work of adam smith based on historical , statistics methods. in chemistry, antoine lavoisier proposed exact science model , stressed quantitative methods experiment , mathematics. karl linnaeus classified plants , organisms based on assumption of fixed species. later, idea of evolution emerged not species society , human intellect. in general natural history , theory of heavens, kant laid out hypothesis of cosmic evolution, , made him great founder of modern scientific conception of evolution according hastie.

francis bacon , followers believed progress of science , technology drive betterment of man. belief attached jean-jacques rousseau defended human emotions , morals. discussion on geography education piloted local regional studies. leibniz , kant formed major challenge mechanical materialism. leibniz conceptualized world changing whole, rather sum of parts machine. nevertheless, acknowledged experience requires rational interpretation—the power of human reason.

kant tried reconcile division of sense , reason stressing moral rationalism grounded on aesthetic experience of nature order, harmony, , unity . knowledge, kant distinguished phenomena (sensible world) , noumena (intelligible world), , asserted phenomena perceived in relations of space , time. drawing line between rational science , empirical science , kant regarded physical geography—associating space—as natural science. during tenure in königsberg, kant offered lectures on physical geography since 1756 , published lecture notes physische geographie in 1801. however, kant s involvement in travel , geographical research limited. kant s work on empirical , rational science influence humboldt , @ smaller extent ritter. manfred büttner asserted kantian emancipation of geography theology.

humboldt admired great geographer, according d. livingstone modern geography first , last synthesizing science , such, if goetzmann believed, became key scientific activity of age . humboldt met geographer george forster @ university of göttingen, geographical description , scientific writing influenced humboldt. geognosia including geography of rocks, animals, , plants important model modern geography . prussian ministry of mines, humboldt founded free royal mining school @ steben miners, later regarded prototype of such institutes. german naturphilosophie, work of goethe , herder, stimulated humboldt s idea , research of universal science. in letter, made observations while attention never lose sight of harmony of concurrent forces, influence of inanimate world on animal , vegetable kingdom. american travel stressed geography of plants focus of science. meanwhile, humboldt used empirical method study indigenous people in new world, regarded important work in human geography. in relation historique du voyage, humboldt called these research new science physique du monde, theorie de la terre, or geographie physique. during 1825 1859, humboldt devoted in kosmos, knowledge of nature. there growing works new world since then. in jeffersonian era, american geography born of geography of america , meaning knowledge discovery helped form discipline. practical knowledge , national pride main components of teleological tradition.

institutions such royal geographical society indicate geography independent discipline. mary somerville s physical geography conceptual culmination of ... baconian ideal of universal integration . according francis bacon, no natural phenomenon can adequately studied alone -- but, understood, must considered stands connected nature.